The Differences Between Internal And External Auditors Accounting Essay

The statue of internal and external hearers in company is different. Internal hearer is integrated to the trade company or an external specialised company or in other words is an employee to the company. However external hearer merely integrated to external specialised company and is an independent individual. Besides, internal and external hearer besides differs in end and auditing process. For internal hearer, they monitor the direction and cheque of the legal conformity of the fiscal statement. They besides make appropriate recommendation for the betterment administration procedure. For external hearer, they identify and certify the fiscal statement. Besides, they besides evaluate the internal control system but this is merely valid for fiscal accounting elements. Next, the range of the audit is different every bit good. The range of internal hearer is big which can cover the whole company ‘s map. But for external hearer, the range is focal points on confirmation the issues that determine the fiscal standing and company ‘s public presentation. Furthermore, the on the job period of audit is besides different. For internal hearer, they can hold lasting activity within the trade companies which is harmonizing to the article of association. For external hearer, the marks are fitfully organized and at suited minutes for the enfranchisement of histories. There is difference between internal and external hearer in term of their independency. Internal hearer is comparatively independence. But in other instance, if the internal auditing is performed by a 3rd company, they have the independency particular to the free-lances. For external hearer, they are independent to its client as representative of a free profession and regulated lawfully and statutory. Furthermore, internal and external hearer besides use different scrutinizing criterion. Internal hearers may follow GAAS criterion and sometimes they may follow IIA criterion or they may non follow any other particular criterion. However, external hearers are required to follow by and large accepted auditing criterions or international auditing criterions, but internal hearers do non. Guidance brand by internal hearer is different with external hearer as good. Internal hearer will give suggestion to the direction for the betterment of concern whereas external hearer does non necessitate to supply suggestion unless he was asked. Besides they besides have different responsibilities. Internal hearer primary responsibility is to happen frauds and mistakes whereas external hearer has to find the concluding histories on whether it was true. If company found any error made by internal hearer, they can be removed by direction. For external hearer, they can be removed by stockholders. Fiscal statements were made by companies. Investors, creditors and bankers can do usage of the company ‘s fiscal statements to do their operating determination. Auditing exists in order to do user trust on these fiscal statement, place the fidelity of fiscal statement, and assist the user make concluding determination. The users can non reexamine and place each history in the fiscal statements by themselves although the users have to depend on the fiscal statements to do their determinations. Users depend on fiscal statements so much. But they would non hold adequate abilities and competency to make so even if they could make so. These fiscal statements are audited by independent and intelligent comptrollers or CPAs. Hearers will sporadically analyze each history in the fiscal statements for the application of users. For illustration, hearers will present a formal mail to the Bankss to look into the balances of hard currency or plus and note collectible or liability history. Besides, they will besides direct a mail to the providers and clients of companies to analyze the balance of histories receivable and histories collectible. In short, hearers are the user ‘s representatives to analyze the fiscal statements of studies. The users can non find whether the fiscal statements are faithful and dependable to show their fiscal place and public presentation if without scrutinizing. Hearers should supply with adequate accounting, and others related cognition. When there are new Torahs and ordinances, they have to accept related preparation and motive. Hearers should hold the character of honest, unsloped, and independent. They can non be influenced by the others in the companies. Besides, hearers besides must hold adequate abilities and competency. There will hold an exam held sporadically to prove whether comptrollers have plenty related cognition. Therefore, we can hold a high criterion of hearers. The cost of scrutinizing depends on the company ‘s net income. The cost of scrutinizing may besides increase if gross revenues incurred in a company turn up continuously and vice-versa. The cost of scrutinizing is high, but we can hold a high criterion and demand for our hearers. Therefore, a company is willing to pay for this dearly-won expertness. We can to the full mention to their sentiments in the fiscal statements because the hearers are trustable and dependable. Mentioning to their sentiments, we can cognize whether companies overstate or understate their plus and liabilities and whether their statements are faithful. With their sentiments, we can make up one's mind whether to depend on these fiscal statements to do our determinations. If the consequences of fiscal statements are trustable, this means the company did non exaggerate or minimize their histories. Therefore, we can utilize its fiscal statements to do our determination. hypertext transfer protocol: //feaa.ucv.ro/AUCSSE/0036v3-027.pdf hypertext transfer protocol: //studypoints.blogspot.com/2011/09/what-is-difference-between-internal_775.html hypertext transfer protocol: //yuhanlo.blogspot.com/2006/01/importance-of-auditing.html

Ap Us Colonial America Dbq

Anthony Edwards8/24/12 AP US History- Jones Colonial America DBQ An interesting characteristic of the colonies that the English founded during the 17th and 18th centuries on the eastern coast of modern day America is that while all were indeed settled by people from England they each developed their own very distinct cultures and ways of life. While the varying environments from each colony to the next certainly isn’t a negligible factor in the diversification of the colonists’ cultures in the New World, there are more striking factors that can be considered.The colonists themselves it seems had very different viewpoints, goals and demeanor when several regions are compared. Examples of two regions that were both settled by the English that developed very different and arguably contrasting cultures are the New England and the Chesapeake colonies. It is apparent that the main goals and natures of the colonists in either region were dissimilar.In New England colonists wer e primarily Puritans and focused on religion, self-government, family values, and cooperation for the good of the community where in the Chesapeake colonists often relied on the royal government and were focused on acquiring great wealth and furthering their own individual achievement. These dissimilarities as well as other factors like the environment caused the two cultures to develop in very separate ways. Every society is shaped by its environment and its culture can be greatly influenced by its surroundings.The society of the New England colonies was formed in an area of temperate, generally cool temperatures, clean water, and rocky, infertile soil. This meant that the colonists weren’t plagued by many diseases and relied on the trade of furs, lumber, and fish. This contrasts to the unhealthful environment the Chesapeake colonists faced. The land of the Chesapeake was often mosquito infested and its inhabitants were constantly in the danger of outbreaks of disease.The Ch esapeake’s economy focused on tobacco as its main export, meaning that the fate and the well-being of many Chesapeake colonies relied on the demand of tobacco products back in the Old World. Another factor that can shape a society is the actual makeup of the people within the society. The colonies in New England were primarily settled by entire families forming communities with other families. There are many accounts f the emigrants on board ships bound for America and very often the ships travelling to New England had examples of entire families seeking a fresh start with husbands, wives, sons, daughters, and occasionally servants (Document B). In contrast, the lists of emigrants bound for the Chesapeake usually held a majority of young men, unrelated to one another and a small portion of young women, again, unrelated. It seemed only individuals, most not even at the age of 35, came to the Chesapeake to start their new lives (Document C).This of course meant that the society in New England was oriented around family and understandably focusing on the well-being of those related to the colonists. In the Chesapeake most colonists held no relation to each other and so didn’t terribly care for anyone else but themselves. These factors by themselves would be enough to see an ostensible difference between the societies, however there are still more factors that led to the dissimilar developments of these two unique cultures. The Puritans that came to New England had a history of cooperation and a focus on the good of the Puritan community.After they left England to worship as they pleased and avoid persecution they went to the Netherlands. Eventually many Puritans became worried that their children would become â€Å"Dutchified† and wanted to retain their culture. To avoid further Dutchification the Puritans got a charter from the Virginia Company to settle in the New World. They landed off the mark however, perhaps to their benefit as they wer e supposed to land in the unhealthy Chesapeake, and found themselves in what would eventually become New England.In 1630 a man on board a ship sailing to New England named John Winthrop wrote what he thought would be A Model of Christian Charity. His views of course pleased his fellow New Englanders as he was destined to become the Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony for many years. His views expressed in his writings seemingly portrayed most Puritans opinions on the ideal community where all families, rich and poor, ought to work cooperatively for everyone’s benefit and have the utmost brotherly affection for each other.Failure in doing so would result in God’s withdrawal of his assistance and allow His enemies to speak ill of Him and His way of life (Document A). Clearly New Englanders held both God and cooperation in the highest reverence. In stark contrast, a certain Captain John Smith wrote an account of the history of Virginia in which he once described his colony in a manner that would surely displease Winthrop. Captain Smith describes the food of many of the colonists being merely meal and water, men focusing only on finding and selling gold, and a group of deserters trying to return to England (Document F).The colonists were ill prepared and focused more on wealth than provisions, showing no real sense of community or cooperation. It seems then that New England would be destined to develop into a series of tight knit, pious, cooperative communities where the Chesapeake would consist of those who eventually succeeded in finding their fortunes and those who would eventually have to be employed by them. While all colonies were ultimately under the control of the royal government there were varying degrees of control over each colony. Some colonies, like the ones in the Chesapeake area, were appointed a royal governor.Others like the New England colonies elected their own officials and often had freemen participate in government. A comm on theme throughout the history of the Chesapeake colonies is their dependence on the royal government for protection and provisions. In 1673 Governor Berkeley of Virginia had written a declaration stating how vulnerable his colony was to attack to the royal government . Berkeley claimed that there was more land to defend than the amount of men could handle, and that there were as many servants as there were freemen protecting the frontiers (Document G).Of course Berkeley was looking for royal intervention, something he in all likelihood did more often than not. However while the dependence on royal government of the Chesapeake colonies by itself may be enough to cause substantial amounts of unrest, there was also much corruption in the colonial government. There was eventually a rebellion of freemen and others who felt that the upperclass of the Chesapeake colonies were using the workers and servants to benefit themselves and not the community. This rebellion was named Baconâ€℠¢s Rebellion after the man who led the revolt.Bacon eventually wrote his â€Å"Manifesto† explaining why he lead the revolt against Governor Berkeley. Bacon calls to attention the fact that many officials would suddenly gain much wealth and power that seemed almost impossible to achieve given their status entering the colony. Bacon also claims that the colonial officials were taking from public wealth and resources to increase their own power (Document H). Bacon and many others like him were tired of being controlled by those who they believed to be corrupt and thieving.Both of these instances show how the Chesapeake colonies relied on royal officials to govern them. This may be due to the fact that the Virginia Company was basically in control of the Chesapeake while it was still at first being colonised, and most of the men didn’t care about who was in charge so long as they could find a way to obtain their fortunes. The Chesapeake colonist’s goals were shorts ighted and put themselves in a prime position to be oppressed by disregarding the importance of their roles in government and focusing on their pursuit of wealth.Where the Chesapeake colonist’s actions are a prime example of how to allow a group of people to be oppressed, the New England colonists took a very hands on approach to their own government resulting in an overall better quality of life and community. There were many regulations and articles that the colonial government set forth to keep their communities running smoothly and fairly. In 1636 there were several Articles of Agreement appointed in Springfield, Massachusetts that set forth a plan to make a proper, Puritan community.The articles claimed that as soon as possible the community would procure a minister for the town, that the town would be comprised of forty families regardless of their financial standing, and these families will have a proportionate plot of land to live on and a section of the meadow or pla nting ground (Document D). The goal of these articles was to allow the town to maintain equal opportunity for all inhabitants to contribute to society in whatever way they could, and to live as comfortably as possible while doing it.In 1676, Connecticut made regulations on wages and prices for its inhabitants to avoid tradesmen and merchants overpricing their goods only to benefit themselves. The regulations also stated that the tradesmen and sellers may receive a moderate profit in order to better serve the community and God as overpricing their wares would be sinful and oppressive (Document E). The New England colonists wished to not only make their new homes in the New World, but also to provide a place where all Puritans and New Englanders can live in tight knit, fair, and model Christian societies.The New England colonists did not only set up model communities for themselves, but also for their children and their children’s children and so on. This reflects the colonists focus on community, self-government, and family values. An important thing to remember about the colonists that settled the Chesapeake and New England is that they once did share a country and society in England even though it may seem that they might as well have came from completely different countries.It is then important to note that simply because two groups of people come from the same country, doesn’t mean they are alike in any way. To look at our own country now, although we are often taught that we can all find common ground amongst those in our society there are still blatant differences in culture between ethnicities, regions, and religions. However, it is more prevalent to look at one’s goals and aspirations to truly see how unique each person or group of people can be.The Chesapeake and New England colonists were both English and where England may seem to have a relatively homogenous culture the goals of the colonists were basically opposites. The New Eng landers wanted a place where they can live and thrive in holy, cooperative, safe communities and provide a place where their people and their children can live the best lives possible. The Chesapeake colonists basically only wanted to find their fortunes and acquire wealth and power. These goals are reflected in both of the regions’ development.Lest we not forget then, that we as a people must now focus on what our goals are. If any lesson can be taken from the development of the New England and Chesapeake colonies now for our country it is that if we focus on short sighted goals like the corrupted American Dream of fortune or the corporations’ and big businesses’ main wishes of continued unsustainable destruction of resources and environments only for profit then we shall perhaps find ourselves in the position the Chesapeake colonists found themselves in.However, if we take a lesson from the New England colonists and focus on building a better tomorrow for our children and society then perhaps we shall thrive in model communities like the ones found in Massachusetts or Connecticut or elsewhere in colonial New England. It is important that we recognise what sort of path we are heading down, we must learn from our past to provide a better future for generations to come.

Cringe Story Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cringe Story - Essay Example As I was heading towards the restaurant to grab a cup of coffee I saw someone gazing at me from distance. He had a persona like none other, a very charming and a good looking guy was consistently trying to establish eye contact with me and I was consistently pretending as though I had a decision to make but it was a fairly easy one. I went straight to him and introduced myself; he was taken aback initially but settled down like a duck takes to water. He had a very strong personality and a very impressive one too, he was very good at conversing and this was something I was looking for in my ideal man. I knew this was a match made in heaven and this was certainly not the first time I thought so, fickle minded people get carried away very quickly but deep down I knew he was the one. We had a very interesting conversation about the purpose of our trips, he had come there to attend a wedding and also to catch up with a few other friends while I had also come there for the very same purpose, everything seem to be in accord. I was completely blown away with his charm; he was not like the usual guys I had met earlier. He was something special and the way he carried himself was splendid. We inevitably ended up exchanging numbers and I got a call from him the very same night, we spoke for hours without realizing it, the time just flew past. He was never shy of offering his helping hand when I needed it the most, I remember him bailing me out of trouble many a time. Likewise, I tried to help him as much as I possibly could. We also started going out together more often than not, I got to know him better and he also had several opportunities to know me better. Upon looking back I realize that mundane day was not mundane after all and we were destined to meet on that particular day. Today we have taken our friendship one step forward, we have decided to get engaged and the future

Implementation of electronic road pricing is needed in Hong-Kong. To Essay

Implementation of electronic road pricing is needed in Hong-Kong. To what extent do you agree with this view - Essay Example For example, the electronic road pricing (ERP) system adopted in Hong Kong to manage traffic through congestion charges. Hong Kong pioneered use of ERP in the 1980s with great success. With few advancements in technology in the 1980s, ERP was implemented through use of an in-pavement reader and a transponder that was placed under vehicles. Adoption of ERP in Hong Kong solved the problem of congestions and charge evasion that faced manual road pricing. However, soon after adoption of ERP followed its critics thereby derailing advancements and over the years the project remained dormant until later propositions on its use rose again later. This was attributed to the fears that traffic problems would rise again in the Central and Wan Chai areas of Hong Kong. Therefore, the roads and transport administration made the recommendations for ERP system to resume operations. However, with time a new administration that was opposed to use of ERP took over thereby derailing ERP system once again. ERP is mainly applied in areas where there are high congestion levels and there is a functional public means of transport in existence. Existence of a public means of transport is to offer an alternative to road users who abandon use of personal vehicles. Therefore, ERP may arguably be considered a method of encouraging use of public means of transport as opposed to individual transport means. Efficiency of ERP depends heavily on its application to only areas with high traffic levels and a functional public means of transport since its application in many areas would arguably strain the system. For example, in Hong Kong ERP would only be most efficient in the Central, Wan Chai, and Causeway Bay. Charging periods are highest during peak hours and lower during off peak hours. Peak hours are determined by the economic advantages relating to different times of the day therefore the most economically

The purpose of a college education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The purpose of a college education - Essay Example on acts as a supplier for vocational training and credentialing services), the purpose of college education is to advance economics’ skills and knowledge. In addition, knowledge is among the important things a student should achieve from college education. Students should have a feeling that, college education gives them something apart from a diploma or a degree-whether it means giving them a job offer, technical skills, or a greater understanding about the world. College education should also serve as a tool for preparing students for the new economy. College education should also aim at changing students in a form that portrays significant improvements in their lives (Conrad and Laura 34). This essay aims at outlining what students should be seeking when they enroll to pursue college education. Notably, public and private higher education institutions globally are facing unprecedented challenges due to the large number of issues including the value of degrees offered in a college, scrutiny over student completion and access, and student aid support. Generally, the main purpose of college education is to disseminate and create knowledge about the world and the students themselves (Conrad and Laura 34). It is also a purpose of college education to create a higher order communicative and cognitive skills in students, such as offering them the ability to reason and think logically. After completion of higher education, graduates should come out with other skills such as motivation to pose challenges on the status quo, as well as the capacity to create sophisticated values. However, the current society view colleges as a training ground where students join to advance their professional and vocational skills. This agenda often creates tension between these two notions: college e ducation is purposely for public good and college education is purposely for private good (Conrad and Laura 37). Due to this tension, universities and colleges have increasingly become

The Mountain Meadows Massacre Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6500 words

The Mountain Meadows Massacre - Research Paper Example The Mountain Meadows massacre was a microcosm for what was happening in America during this time. Since the time of colonial America, the citizens believed that they had a right to take up arms and take the law into their hands as a protest against unjust conditions. This was known as the â€Å"right of the riot† . This belief led to many riots, against negros, Catholics, and anti-abolitionists, as well as riots concerning labor and elections. This was a time of mob rule, where individuals took up arms to put down anybody they did not like, and lax law enforcement enabled this to occur . It was this mentality that led not only to the massacre itself, but to the persecutions that the Mormons faced that made up the justification for the massacres. In the weeks leading up to the massacre, there were a great deal of events that occurred. On July 24, 1857, the Mormons were celebrating Pioneer Day, with speeches and cannon salutes and â€Å"three groans† for the state of Miss ouri . The â€Å"three groans† was a reference to the state of Missouri and how they treated the Mormons – threatening them, subjecting them to rape and beatings, stripping them of their land, imprisoning Smith, and forcing them to leave the state.

Usability Testing and Implementation (HW) Research Paper

Usability Testing and Implementation (HW) - Research Paper Example These three players co-exist for good site usability. John Rhodes’ (2005) point about usability training over testing is promising for companies who have been depending and investing too much on usability tests, more so, for those companies which choose to neglect usability. He had a matter-of-factly statement that instead of hiring usability professionals which may cost them $35, 000 half a day, a company may rather invest in training designers and developers about the whole usability aspect. Usability is not just an aspect of selling a site but a series of operations (Rhodes, 2005). From there, designers and developers may be able to integrate the knowledge gained from the training into the course and duration in structuring and designing a site (Rhodes, 2005). However, this train of thought actually eliminates the importance of usability researches needed for the usability in huge user-centered interface designs where average people are the end-users. More so, he Usability tests may be equally important to usability training. The former involves users. The latter involves creators. Dumas and Redish (1999) summed up five attributes to which all usability tests have in common: 1.) the aim to enhance of product usability; 2.) participation of end-users; 3.) involvement of actual tasks; 4.) evaluation of what participants do and say; 4.) analysis of data and diagnosis of the problems; and 5.) recommendation to fix problems. In short, they offer how significant a user’s opinion may be in formulating an extensive solution. This though, doesn’t hand over the benefit of usability training, where it makes jobs easier and fast for creators. Designers and developers, themselves, for instance could conduct user testing which is a basic usability activity. This is also a good utilization of what they learned from their usability training. With small-time projects, the

Analysis of Marketing plans for Forever Charge Assignment - 8

Analysis of Marketing plans for Forever Charge - Assignment Example This identifies a comprehensive basis for understanding the marketing environment and helps in ensuring a detailed marketing plan. Organization and precision of contents of each of the areas are however not adequate for an effective marketing plan. The environmental analysis fails to discuss customer factors and this means missing links in the plan. Other factors such as recession, competition, and technology advancements are just mentioned but are not discussed. Environmental factors, as used under environmental analysis, are also not specific because even technological factors, recession, and competition are environmental factors. Such organization of the section into external, internal, and customer factors and a discussion of aspects of each of the group of factors would have been appropriate. Even though SWOT analysis appears organized (Ferrell and Hartline 38, 39), its contents are not accurate. Helping to promote business, for example, is more of an objective than an opportuni ty, and if an opportunity exists for promoting business then that should be discussed with clarity. The marketing plan is for Forever Charge, a product of BKSK Inc. The product is a wireless charger that is new in the market and is being marketed for a new company. The objective of the plan is to win consumers’ trust towards sales and profits. Below is the analysis of aspects of the plan. The marketing plan is detailed and this allows for consideration of factors to the success of plan implementation. Each of the sections of the plan is organized into subsections in which details are discussed. Analysis of the marketing environment, for example, includes discussion on technological, competitive, economic, socio-cultural, legal, and social factors to the marketing environment. This ensures effective decisions on the explored areas.  

Course Project Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Course Project - Research Paper Example Organizations main aim is to achieve their objective goals. They usually meet challenges and they must beat them to achieve these goals as a team. Challenges create different conflicts among members of the organisation both within and the general environment in which the firm is based. Most people believe that conflict will lead to unfavourable results but this is not true. Conflict has both good and bad impacts. There are different strategies and styles that have been created to solve the problem of conflict in the organisation. Misunderstanding in an organisation usually comes about due to differences in viewpoints, competition, different ideas and this usually has different effects. This is something common that occurs in organisation now days. Some of the effects that conflict can bring include change in the organisation. This is achieved by modification of policies to manage and resolve conflict. It also leads to new innovations, improve goal congruence, results to sub optimization and lastly it wastes a lot of time. How an individual responds and manages conflict usually determines the success of the organisation. According to Bar-Siman-Tov and Yaacov conflict arises due to differences in ideas. It has a great impact on employee turnover, morale and litigation (57-9). This usually affects the success and development of organization. The main objective of conflict management and resolution is to promote learning team results. Suggestions by Tidwell and Alan say that efficiency and effectiveness in the company’s setting (24-6). This will usually lead to good outcomes. There are five ways which have been suggested to avoid conflict if it arises (Dana 61). Collaboration is one way of solving conflict. Here it emphasizes that every affected part idea is regarded. The basic idea here is that considering every individual opinion will

Trade Marks Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Trade Marks - Case Study Example Section 3 of this Act requires a trademark to be distinctive. As such, section 1 of the Act stipulates that the trademark should render it possible to differentiate the goods or services of one undertaking from that of the others. An application for a mark that tends to mislead or deceive the public will not be registered. Moreover, under the provisions of section 5 of this Act, a trademark applied for registration is compared with protected trademarks in the UK. Some examples of protected trademarks are UK national marks, CTMs and international registrations that have specified the EU or the UK. In Philips Electronics NV v Remington Consumer Products, it was held by the court that a sign was anything that conveyed information. This definition clearly addresses signs involving words, designs, letters, and numerals, as all of these can be represented graphically without much difficulty. Apparently, this seems to create a difficulty with regard to odours and flavours (Lee, 1999). All t he same, this perceived obstacle to registering such marks did not prove to be difficult to overcome. A pyramid shape for chocolate mints, "pointymints", similar in some ways to a well – known brand of triangular chocolate â€Å"Toblerone.† In this problem a pyramidal shape for a mint chocolate had been applied for registration. This shape was already possessed by Toblerone, a well – known brand of chocolates. In order to register a trademark, it must have fulfilled three fundamental requirements.

Soil conservation Essay Example for Free

Soil conservation Essay Soil conservation is a combination of all methods of management and land use that safeguard the soil against depletion or deterioration by natural or man-induced factors. It most often attempts to ensure that SOIL does not erode and wash into streams and lakes or blow away in the wind, but it also involves the protection of the soil from damage by machinery (compaction) or by detrimental changes to its chemistry (acidification or salinization). Soil conservation comprises of all the procedures and methods that involve protecting the soil from natural as well as manmade destructions. There are many natural ways in which soil could get eroded or blown away. In the same way, soil could also get contaminated or chemically altered owing to acidification or salinization, or destruction from machinery. The saying, ‘change is the only constant’ holds true for everything †¦including nature. Everything in our natural world is in a perpetual state of evolution and change. However, when this change is triggered by unnatural methods, that is when an imbalance occurs in the natural process of the planet and it begins to affect our quality of life. Soil conservation is a very important issue, both in developing nations where a good portion of income is derived from agriculture and in developed nations where mechanized farming and an over-abundant use of chemical fertilizers can sometimes have a detrimental effect on the land. But it is not only for farmers and agriculturists it has a far-reaching effect on the environment and so concerns all of us. There is a growing need to prevent and control soil erosion and soil contamination, and to maintain soil fertility. Implementing various strategies and methods can help in stemming erosion of the soil, in preserving the quality of the soil and in increasing its productive capacity. Good soil conversation leads to enriched lands, better crop yields, good financial returns and a balanced environment. THE AGRICULTURAL SOIL CONSERVATION In order to carry out effective soil conservation, you must first consider several aspects of the land in question. Here are some of the things that must be considered – Is there enough vegetative cover over the land or does it need to be developed? What are the proper erosion control methods that can be utilized and how will you implement them? What is the soil salinity level and how are you going to manage it? What is the soil acidity level and how are you going to control it? What is the soil mineral content and do you need to regularly add mineral supplements? Is the soil contaminated and, if so, what methods are you going to use to remediate it and to prevent future contamination? Are there beneficial soil organisms in the soil and are they allowed to thrive? Once you know what kind of soil conservation is needed, you can consider implementing any or all the following methods – Planting dense rows of trees as wind-breaks along the borders of the land, especially on the sides that are exposed to stiff wind. Their roots stabilize the soil and prevent it from being shifted away by the wind.s Planting crops in rotation. Alternating crops helps avoid depleting the soil nutrients too fast. Planting cover crops. These stabilize the soil and reduce the effects of soil erosion. They also discourage the spread of weeds and help the soil retain its moisture in the summers. Plowing along the contour of the land. Planting crops parallel to the slope of the land. Going for strip cropping. This involves planting grasses or pulses between regular crops like corn. The corn crop is not particularly effective in preventing soil erosion, but the grasses keep erosion in check. Adding much to the soil surface. This prevents erosion by acting as a barrier and catching run-off water. Adding coir logs as barriers. These are very useful in areas where too much erosion has taken place and act as erosion preventing barriers and a support for new developing vegetation. Aside from coir barriers, sand bag and gravel bag barriers are also used. Growing grass on slopes and in waterways. Grassed waterways prevent too much soil from being washed away. Making use of natural as well as man-made fertilizers. Keeping the land fallow in order to rest it. Managing the levels of salinity. In areas where irrigation is in excess or where the saline water tables are low, the salinity levels can go up and make the land unsuitable for agriculture. This problem can be resolved by the use of humic acid. Managing the soil ph. The soil pH is what determines the amount of nutrients that the plants can absorb from the soil. Soil pH levels can be raised or decreased, as needed, by adding certain chemicals for example, agriculture lime for raising pH level and ammonium phosphate for reducing it. Encouraging beneficial soil organisms like earthworms and nitrogen fixing bacteria to thrive in the soil. The presence of such organisms enriches the soil. Using man-made chemical insecticides, pesticides and herbicides in very low amounts. Over use of chemicals can poison the soil and kill of useful organisms, and is generally harmful to the environment. Regularly add minerals to the soil. Minerals provide much-need nutrients to the soil to be absorbed by the plants. To mineralize the soil, add chemical supplements or try adding crushed rock.

Total Knee Replacement Post Op Pain Management

Total Knee Replacement Post Op Pain Management To improve the quality and mobility of life, the most frequently used operative procedure is the total knee replacement. But it is necessary to administer the pain relief measures in the post operative period which would allow the ambulation and reduce the post operative complications. It is important to consider the pain relief options provided in the text with reference to the possible adverse affects in each case. Objective The main objective is the identification of the most suited method for the post operative pain control after the Total Knee Replacement Surgery. Methodology The random control trials executed on adult patients with the Total Knee Replacement Surgery was identified by going through the databases of MEDLINE, PUBMED, COCHRANE and CINAHL from the year 2000 to the present year. Results The patients involved in this study had pre operative and post operative osteoarthritis diagnosis. The continuous pain arising due to the arthritis can be eliminated by the total knee arthoplasty treatment. The use of femoral nerve blockade can be used to treat the pain after the total knee arthoplasty. Reduced oral opioid were taken in by the patients with primary, unilateral, noncemented total knee arthoplasty. These patients are also known to take less stool softener as a post operative measure and have increased mobilization. The patients poor health often resulted due to the obesity which led to a modifiable co-morbidity as was shown by the higher classification of the ASA. Conclusion Until now no adequate solution has been found to the pain after the Total Knee Replacement surgery. Although some consideration could be given to the combined femoral nerve block, the author however supports the use of multimodal approach in the control of postoperative pain in the TKR surgery. This method should be administered keeping in mind the clinical status of the individual patient, availability of skilled technicians and adequate equipment.Contents Page 1 Introduction Pain according to the International Association for the Study of Pain, has been described as an unpleasant emotional and a sensory experience that is often connected to an actual or a potential damage or is a sense that may be described in terms of that damage (Merskey, 1986). Although much advancement have been made in the study of mechanisms and their treatment, still they scientists have been unable to find the appropriate solution to postoperative pains (Joshi and Ogunnaike, 2005). If the inadequate methods of relieving pains are administered, then this may cause damage to the physiological and psychological workings and the patient may need more time to recover and return to the daily life (Gottschalk and Smith, 2001; Joshi and Ogunnaike, 2005). The most dreadful consequence can be death itself. In addition patients are complaining about the post operative symptoms such as pain which results due to the anesthesia or any surgical procedure. It is also an established fact that a postoperative pain treated inadequately can inculcate into a chronic pain which may be not diagnosed properly and will lead to its negligence (Joshi, and Ogunnaike, 2005). The health care costs and the resources are required more in these cases (Phillips, 2003). It is important that steps be taken to improve the control of preoperative pain which is a much better option and will lead to the reduction of post operative morbidity. This will therefore increase the standard of health associated quality of life and will also benefit the health sector economically. Theory of Pain The Gate Control Theory was established by Melzack and Wall (1965), to explain the differences in the perceptions of the similar stimuli. These scientists believed in the existence of some sort of a gate in the spinal cord that would open in specific situations and allow the passage of the nerve impulses linked with the pain stimulation which was then read by the brain as a sensation of pain. They also believed that certain psychological factors such as the anxiety would also affect the degree of the opening of the gate. Therefore in order to minimize the pain the theory was based on the idea of closing this gate. According to the Gate Theory, it was possible to control the transmission of the pain impulses through a gating mechanism present along the nervous system. The pulses can move in both the direction both up and down the nervous system. This means that the whole nervous system is involved in the perception of the pain response (Suza, 2007). Physiology of Pain The basic process of the pain transmission is Nociception. According to Loeser and Treede (2008), the Nociception is the neural process of encoding and the process of noxious stimuli. The mechanical, thermal or the chemical changes when surpasses the set limit, then they can be detected by the nociceptors or the pain receptors. The nociceptors transmit a signal along the spinal cord after its stimulation, to the brain which is then perceived by the brain as a sensation of pain (McCaffery and Pasero 1999). Pathophysiology of pain The sympathetic nervous system is activated by the stress responses in which the body is alerted to the existing harm. This denotes that the stress responses are a protective measure by nature. Through the stress responses the damages like blood loss is minimized as well as the perfusion to the vital organs will be maintained, healing will be enhanced and prevention to infections will also be carried out (Singh, 2003). But if the pain is prolonged then harmful consequences may be caused to the multiple systems of the body. A calculated amount of the hormones are released by the endocrine system which are responsible for the conversion process and the utilization of the carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Excessive amounts of these hormones are released by the endocrine system when the person is under stress. These hormones include Cortisol, Growth hormone, Adrenocorticotrophic hormone, Antidiuretic hormone, Catecholamine and Glucagon. Tachcardia, fever, shock, increased rate of respiration and some severe results leading to death may be produced by the combination of the inflammatory process, endocrine and the metabolic changes. The stress responses are prolonged by the pain and physical changes and may severely affect the recovery of the patient from the situation of trauma (McCaffery and Pasero, 1999). The sympathetic nerves system is activated as a response to the stress by the cardiovascular system. A number of affects are caused by the activation of the sympathetic nervous system in the post operative period, such as; increase in the heart rate, hypercoagulation due to the decrease in the fibrinolysis, blood pressure, oxygen demand and a cardiac workload. Major impacts of the hypercoagulation may be seen on the morbidity and the mortality as these may be connected to the infarction, irregular angina and myocardial ischemia. The risks of pulmonary embolism may be increased due to the deep venous thrombosis (DVT) which is generally associated with the surgical procedures and an absence in the movement postoperatively. The respiratory system affects of the severe pain can be calculated in terms of the high inspiratory and expiratory residual capacity, tidal volumes and the alveolar ventilation. If the controlling measures applied to the postoperative pain are not adequate then the adverse respiratory affects can convert to severe pulmonary complications in the form of atelectasis and pneumonia (McCaffery and Pasero, 1999). The urine outputs, electrolyte balance, other fluids are regulated by the hormones in the Genitourinary System. These hormones also control the blood volume and the pressure. These hormones may include ADH, cortisol, angiotensin II, catecholamine, prostaglandins and aldosterone. If the pain is not relieved then it may lead to the excess release of the hormones which can cause the water and the sodium ions to be retained, the functional extracellular fluids are decreased with the fluids being moved to the intracellular compartments and the excess excretion of the potassium ions. Among the harmful effects are: decrease in the urinary output, increase in the cardiac workload, urine retained, hypokalemia, hypertension and the overloading of the fluids (McCaffery and Pasero, 1999). The activity of the sympathetic nervous system is increased due to the stress responses which affect the Gastrointestinal System, increase in the smooth muscle sphincter tone, intestinal secretion and the decrease in the gastric disposal and intestinal motility. These may lead to the gastrointestinal function to be temporarily impaired (McCaffery and Pasero, 1999). The pain in the Musculoskeletal System may lead to the impairment of the muscle function, muscle spasm, immobility and fatigue. The short and the long term recovery can be affected by the inadequate control of the pain after the execution of an orthopedic surgery as this may create interference in the patients performance of the physical therapy exercises (Choy, Bandar, Scott and Dockets, 2010). The hospital stay for the patient may be prolonged as a result. The time duration spent by the patient in the hospital indicates the patients satisfaction level. Patients who had a short stay were found to be more satisfied as compared to those with longer hospital stay. The Immune function can be suppressed by the pain (page 2000) which will make the patient more vulnerable to postoperative infections such as pneumonia, sepsis and the wound infection. The severe acute pain or the pain which is prolonged can affect the Cognitive function which will make the patient to undergo some behavioral changes such as the increased sensitivity to the external stimuli like light and sound. Individuals may react by withdrawing themselves form interpersonal interactions and an increased indulgence in ones self concern (NHMRC, 2005). If the pain is not relieved the patient may experience a loss of control over the environment such as the expression of anger and resentment which may make the patient believe that the treatment is being delayed (Joshi and Ogunnaike, 2005). Postoperative pain control The surgical pain should be appropriately managed owing to the negative effects that it has on the physical and the psychological system of the postoperative patient. The following methods have been applied in the Total Knee Surgery in the practice area of the author in the area of orthopedic surgery: Systemic Opioids The treatment of moderate and acute pain can be done through opioids which is still the main systemic analgesia. Titration is needed to estimate the individual needs as the opioids requirements differs from one patient to another with respect to dosage. The most effective pain relievers are the opioids but they are generally not desired by the patients or the doctors due to the wide ranging adverse effects (NHMRC, 2005). Paracetamol To treat the post operative pain, paracetamol was introduced as an analgesic and antipyretic. The use of opioid was reduced by 20-30% by the usage of paracetamol and the level of patient satisfaction was also increased. The postoperative pains are also affectively dealt with the combination of Non-Steroidal Anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and the opioids. The NSAIDs are effective analgesics, anti-inflammatory drugs and antipyretics. The NSAIDs are also helpful in reducing the usage of opioid, but the adverse effects associated with this drug has made the clinicians extra careful when using it. The method in which the patient can administer the analgesics as needed is referred to as the Patient Controlled Analgesia (PCA). Although this term may be more frequently associated with the programmable infusion pumps that administer the dose for the opioid medication intravenously (Morgan, et al. 2006). The cumulative doses of the drugs are decreased in comparison to the continuous epidural infusion by the usage of Patient Controlled Epidural Analgesia which contains Bupivacaine and Fentanyl. This may be done without any difference seen in the side effects or the relief of pain. The duration of the postoperative analgesia is extended beyond the duration which is generally available in a single injection by the help of Continuous Peripheral Nerve Blockade (CFNB). The technique utilized in the nerve location, the typology of the continuous catheter, local anesthesia, equipment and the management is some of the technical issues that are brought under consideration. The CFNB is sometimes referred to as the 3-in-1 due to the triple benefits that it offers as when it the catheter is positioned in the femoral nerve sheath, it will allow the penetration of the local anesthesia to the lateral femoral cutaneous, the obturator nerve and the femoral nerve block (NHMRC, 2005). Total Knee Replacement (TKR) The patient suffering from acute pain and unstable knees, in order to gain a pain relief and a functional movement, requires a total Knee replacement surgery. Prophylaxis and early mobilization can reduce the complications and morbidity caused after the surgical procedures. Prophylaxis According to Palmer (2010), in the absence of prophylaxis there was an occurrence of 40-88% of deep venous thrombosis (DVT) after the TKR. According to Palmer several methods can be applied to reduce these risks such as low dose of warfarin, mechanical compression stockings, heparin of low molecular weight and aspirin. Mobilization A rapid recovery to the normal functions after surgery can be done through postoperative mobilization. If the postoperative pain is not relieved then it will lead to late mobilization which will increase the DVT risks, chest infection and pulmonary embolism. If the chest infection is concurred, then the static secretions will lead to atelectasis and pneumonia (Bone and Joint, 2009). 3 Methods The method of study was primarily based on the extensive literature review of the publications which were related to the management of postoperative pains in adults who have undergone Total Knee Replacement Surgery. The method was more preferred by the author due to limited clinical access to the patients as the author is an international student. This method was also chosen under the light of the statement by Aveyard (2007), who said that the literature review is able to provide a complete picture and helps in forming a systematic approach towards the studys answer. Therefore the study will include as many options available from the literature review as possible. Search strategy The Cardiff Universitys electronic database was used as the source to gain data on the most effective method used in the post operative pain control after the Total Knee Replacement Surgery. The search gave 246 hits with the keywords used such as Pain, Analgesia, Anesthesia, postoperative and Knee. Among these results the author selected the most relevant options with the help of Medline Ovid. The search was limited to the English language due to convenience in understanding this language as compared to the others and included results from the year 2000 to the present. The appendix 1 shows the details of the research strategy. Scope of the study The inclusion of the data in the study was based on adult human beings and total knee replacement surgery. The pediatric and other surgical specialties were not included in the research as was the study involving non human subjects. Data collection The MEDLINE, PUBMED, COCHRANE and CINAHL were the primary source of information. The Critical Appraisal Skills Programme criteria were used in the judging of the key methodological points considered in the Randomised Control Trials (PHRU, 2006). Data analysis In the published materials, broad themes were identified and studied with the most common and frequently used methods of pain relief resulting for the Total Knee Replacement Surgery were compared and analyzed with each other. The adverse effects of these methods were also considered in the analysis. The results were analyzed under the CASP (PHRU, 2006) criteria which was developed by the Center of Evidence based Medicine (CEBM, 2011). The appendix 2 shows the appraisal sheet. 3 Results (Review of the literature) A double blinded Randomized Controlled Trial was conducted by Kardash et al (2007), for the comparative analysis of the obturator with the femoral nerve block used for the analgesia after the Total Knee Replacement surgery. This was done by using at the surgerys end the spinal anesthesia with the femoral, obutrator or the placebo nerve block. The study consisted of 60 patients who were divided in treatment groups of varying sizes. The participants and the collectors were not aware of this allocation at all. All the patients were present in the study except for one patient who was removed from the study due to the confusion of the patient in the recovery room postoperatively. The patients were given a follow up after 48 hours of post surgery. The pain scores were found to be lowered after the femoral nerve block as compared to the obturator nerve block. But no difference was found in the groups after 48 hours related to pain or baseline among the groups. There was an absence of a sign ificant difference between the groups with the pain score of p=0.03 as an option. This would favor mobilization of the femoral block over the obturator block. The data is widely represented as shown by the demographics of the total knee replacement population. The findings could not be generalized owing to the small size of the groups. A prospective randomized placebo controlled single blind study was executed by Macalou (2004). The assigning of the patients into three groups was done randomly through envelops given to the patients. A femoral nerve block (FNB) was given to group 1 while combined and selective obturator nerve block, FNB=33 was given to the group 2. The group 3 was given the placebo FNB (n=28) with a total of 90 patients enrolled in the study. The three groups demonstrated no significant demographic differences. All the participants were present in the study without any dropouts and there was no failure of the block experienced which makes the study even more valid. In the first 6 hours the patients were monitored postoperative. The administration of the Patient Controlled Analgesia was initiated post anesthesia without the recording of any symptoms of pain in the first 6 hours. The study follow ups are from 24 to 48hours which means that the duration of the study of 6 hours is not sufficient to obtain any conclusions. 3 tables and 1 graph presented the study. The results obtained in the first 6 hours after the surgery showed the morphine boluses given through the PCA were consumed in a lesser number in group 2 as compared to the group 1 and 3 (P0.05). The ITM group showed an increase in the occurrence of nausea, pruritus and vomiting. About 20% of the patients in the ITM group in the follow up satisfactory survey rated their anesthetic experience as not satisfactory. These were considered in comparison with none in the FNB group (P=0.035). The validity and reliability of the study was enhanced by the reporting of the P value and the confidence interval. Equal amounts of the postoperative analgesia were experienced but the fewer side effects were seen in the FNB group such as nausea, itching and vomiting. Less level of satisfaction was observed among patients receiving T morphine. However the interventions were not sufficient to provide the completed postoperative analgesia. A randomized controlled trial was conducted by Davies in 2004, in which the 60 patients who underwent unilateral primary total knee replacement surgery were included in one of the two study groups. The continuous epidural analgesia was given to the group 1 until a single shot combined with sciatic plus femoral which is available in 3 in 1 combined block. The research used a random number generator, Arcus Quickstat version 1.0, to divide the participants in groups in which a third party would store the codes in sealed and opaque envelopes which would reduce the chances of bias (Parahoo, 2006). The exclusion of the patients was done on the following basis: local anesthesia, ASA>3, neuraxial blockage or the use of tourniquet, contraindications to use the non steroidal anti inflammatory drugs, pain poly analgesia. The criteria used for the exclusion seemed to be correct. All the participants were present in the study and in the conclusion. The failure to locate the epidural space led to the exclusion of one patient. After the exclusion the analysis was done but no difference in the results were seen in the analysis on an intention to treat the basis. The data collection was done in a similar manner and the follow up was carried out. A performance bias was created by the inconsistencies. The analysis of the patients was done for the pain assessment after 48 hours postoperatively with the use of a visual analog VAS. The power analysis was used to determine the sample size, obtained from a lower limb neural block study which showed the 10mm VAS difference. A risk of 0.05 was obtained in group A and a risk of 0.2 was obtained in group B. a minimum of 24 patients would be sufficient for the study. In each group 30 patients were however recruited to make up for the incomplete data collected and to make sure that the validity was ensured. 3 tables and 3 graphs were used to demonstrate the results. An absence of a statistical difference between the two groups was seen in the two groups for the block insertion time (P=0.92). The dose given for the fentanyl was to be same. In both the groups the score for the pain was higher than 24 and 48 hours. A greater number of the patients were found in the epidural group with the completed recovery of the analgesia. There was no pain reported in the 0.23 of 39 patients when a movement was attempted as compared to the 16 out of 30 patients form the block group. The scores of the level of satisfaction were found to be high in both the groups with an increased tendency of the statistical significance which was found to favor the block group at 48 hours. The validity of the study was increased with the discussion of the P value and the confidence interval. A practical alternative to the epidural analgesia was offered by the combined block for the total knee replacements. The results can be applied to the clinical setting.

Environmental Impact of Fossil Fuels

Environmental Impact of Fossil Fuels The pollution of large combustion plants comes from fossil fuel such as: coal, oil (petroleum) and natural gas Fossil fuel: have been formed from the remains of organisms which lived hundred of millions of years a go. There are three main types of fossil fuel: Coil, oil (petroleum) and natural gas. Coil was formed from the remains of tree and plants which grew in swamps. Oil it is formed from the sea, the sea contains many tiny animals and plants called plankton, they get their energy to live and multiply from sunlight. When they die they sink to the bottom of the sea. Those that died millions of years ago, form oil and gas which are the main sources of fuel. Natural gas is mainly made up of methane, which is given off by anaerobic bacteria breaking down some of the organic matter which formed oil and coal. Fossil fuels are burned to producing energy, Pollution is defined as the contamination of air, water or soil by materials that interfere with human health, the quality of life, or the natural functioning of ecosystems. Air pollution is the pollution of the atmosphere by emissions from industrial plants, incinerators, internal combustion engines and other sources. Pollutants can be classified as either primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are substances directly produced by a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption or the carbon monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust. Secondary pollutants are not emitted. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary pollutant is ozone-one of the many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog. (Pepper, I.L C.P Gerba M. L Brusseau. 1996) Source Large combustion Plants refers to the coal power station, Oil refinery, natural gas processing plant and others Coal power plant Coal is composed of carbon, sulphur, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. In a coal power station pollutants are formed by the burning of the fossil fuel coal. Burning coal at high temperature will produce oxides of nitrogen. Inside the coal are compounds of sulphur and nitrogen. These originate from the dead organisms that make up the coal. When the coal is burnt the Sulphur and Nitrogen is oxidised producing SOX and NOX, which are released into the atmosphere as primary pollutants. The NOX produced from combusting the Nitrogen in the coal is called fuel NOX. There is also NOX produced by the combustion of Oxygen and Nitrogen in the air. This is known as thermal NOX.  (Peirce, J.F R.F.Weiner P.A. Vesilind.1998) When a fuel burns, it reacts with oxygen to form oxides.   If the fuel burns completely, then all the carbon in it is turned into carbon dioxide which is slightly acidic.   If there is not much air available, the carbon may be turned into carbon monoxide, which is a very poisonous gas. The main primary pollutants created by a coal fired power station are NOx, SOx and VOCs. Sulphur oxides are created from the burning of the coal. Coal naturally contains sulphur, the amount of which varies depending on which organisms created the coal. When the coal is burnt, so also is the sulphur. When a fuel burns, it reacts with oxygen to form oxides.  If the fuel burns completely, then all the carbon in it is turned into carbon dioxide which is slightly acidic.   If there is not much air available, the carbon may be turned into carbon monoxide, which is a very poisonous gas. The carbon dioxide released by the coal power plant causes climate change and global warming, coal fire power plants are the main contributor to co2 in the air. Proteins in living organisms contain nitrogen. When coal burns, Nox is formed in the following ways: When nitrogen bound in the coal is released and combines with oxygen to form fuel Nox.   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  When high combustion temperatures break apart stable nitrogen molecules in the air which then recombine with oxygen to form thermal NOx.    Primary pollutants formed in a coal fired power plants are: Nox formed at high temperature and pressure of the combustion causes the atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen to react. VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds) produced when unburnt hydrocarbons are released through the chimney of the furnace. Carbon monoxide is a gas formed as a by-product during the incomplete combustion of all fossil fuels. Exposure to carbon monoxide can cause headaches and place additional stress on people with heart disease.   Sulphur dioxide mostly comes from the burning of coal or oil in power plants. Sulphur dioxide reacts in the atmosphere to form acid rain and particles.  And is also a major contributor to photochemical smog. Nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides are important constituents of acid rain. These gases combine with water vapour in clouds to form sulphuric and nitric acids, which become part of rain and snow. As the acids accumulate, lakes and rivers become too acidic for plant and animal life. (Peirce, J.F R.F.Weiner P.A. Vesilind.1998)             Impact Coal Fired Power Stations Coal-fired power stations are major sources of pollution. The extensive use of coal is because there is a lot of it around. Although it produces pollutants coal is an important fuel for some considerable time to come.   A coal-fired power station has three main inputs: coal, cooling water pure water to use in steam turbines. The main outputs are electricity, waste heat, CO2, SOx, NOx and ash. Fossil fuels are also linked to the decrease of air quality. Clean air is essential to life and good health. Several important pollutants are produced by fossil fuel combustion: carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, and hydrocarbons. In addition, total suspended particulates contribute to air pollution, and nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons can combine in the atmosphere to form tropospheric ozone, the major constituent of smog. Coal-fired power stations are responsible for the diffusion of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere must be carefully balanced to maintain the greenhouse effect, which is what keeps the surface of the earth warm enough to support life. Like all things in nature a change in one part of the environment can result in changes in another.    The effect of increased greenhouse gases in the environment is that the temperature of the atmosphere is expected to increase. It is predicted by some scientists that this temperature increase could result in the following: The destruction of ecosystems such as the Great Barrier Reef. A change in the worlds weather patterns, resulting in an increase in both intensity and frequency of storms, cyclones, floods and droughts. The melting of glaciers and polar ice. Rising sea levels resulting in the permanent flooding of vast areas. Economies may be affected by the destruction of crops and industry.   The effect of releasing gaseous acids into the atmosphere, as a result of modern lifestyles, results in Acid Rain and more serious Global Warming. The effects of global warming is of such great concern that many nations agreed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.   Mining the coal that is to be used in the generation of electricity results in the destruction of the environment. Water systems can be threatened from the run-off as a result of the washing of coal. The pollution that is caused by the means of acid rain can have a variety of effects on the environment that are mostly negative such as; acid rain being a form of chemical weathering on buildings that are constructed from limestone or marble.   Acid rain can also contaminate water supplies by dissolving the lead and copper pipes which transport the water to houses and other buildings. Another effect of acid rain is the pollution that is caused on lakes and reservoirs killing most of the wildlife, this includes trees plants and animal habitats    Acid rain also affects rivers and lakes, as the acidity levels go up, the pH level falls. With the pH of water below 4.5 most fish will die, this will have a detrimental effect on wildlife as if the fish die the birds that feed on the fish will also die. SOx emissions All living organisms contain compounds of sulphur which are the origin of the sulphur found in coal. When coal burns, the sulphur compounds are converted to oxides of sulphur. Sulphur Dioxide exposure can affect people who suffer from asthma or emphysema by making it more difficult to breathe. It can also irritate peoples eyes, noses, and throats. Sulphur dioxide can harm trees and crops, damage buildings, and make it harder for people to see long distance. NOx Emissions The flue gases in the power station contain oxides of nitrogen (NOx). This is because fuels contain compounds of nitrogen formed from the proteins contained in organisms. When the fuel is burnt, these nitrogen compounds are oxidised to form fuel NOx .At the high temperature of combustion, atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen combine to form thermal   NOx High levels of nitrogen dioxide exposure can give people cough and can make them fell short of breath. People who are exposed to nitrogen dioxide for long time have a higher chance of getting respiration infection. Acid rain can hurt plants and animals, and can make lakes dangerous to swim or fish in Nitrogen dioxide also reacts with the oxygen or hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight to form an irritating photochemical. Carbon monoxide carbon monoxide makes it hard for body parts to get the oxygen they need to run correctly. Exposure to carbon monoxide makes people fell dizzy and tired and gives them headaches. Ozone near the ground can cause a number of health problems. Ozone can lead to more frequent asthma attacks in people who have asthma and can cause sore throats, cough breathing difficult. It may even lead to premature death. Ozone can also hurt plants and crops. When the ozone in the stratosphere is destroyed, people are exposed to more radiation from the sun (ultraviolet radiation). This can lead to skin cancer and eye problems. Higher ultraviolet radiation can also harm plants and animals    Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): causes eye irritation, respiratory irritation, some are carcinogenic, and decreased visibility due to blue-brown haze Advantages Very large amounts of electricity can be generated in one place using coal, fairly cheaply. Transporting oil and gas to the power stations is easy. Gas-fired power stations are very efficient. A fossil-fuelled power station can be built almost anywhere, so long as you can get large quantities of fuel to it. Didcot power station, in Oxfordshire, has its own rail link to supply the coal. Disadvantages Coal is not a renewable resource. Coal-fire power stations create pollution. Mining coal damages the environment. During the production of electricity carbon dioxide is released, increasing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The main drawback of fossil fuel is pollution. Burning any fossil fuel produces carbon dioxide, which contributes to the greenhouse effect warming the Earth. Burning coal produces more carbon dioxide than burning oil or gas. It also produces sulphur dioxide, a gas that contributes to acid rain. this can be reduced before releasing the waste gases into atmosphere. Mining coal can be difficult and dangerous. Strip mining destroy large areas of the landscape. Coal-power stations need huge amounts of fuel, which means train-loads of coal almost constantly. In order to cope with changing demands for power, the station needs reserves. This means covering a large area of countryside next to the power station with piles of coal Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and nitrogen dioxide are also produced in these emissions and can produce acid rain. (Peirce, J.F R.F.Weiner P.A. Vesilind.1998) Monitoring Pollution Pollution is measured to ensure that the air quality are not exceeded Monitoring air pollution When monitoring air pollution it is important to know or decide what pollutants are to be monitored, where they should be monitored, what instruments are to be used for that purpose and what kind of weather base needs to be collected, and it is also important to figure out how many stations are necessary to meet this goal. Carbon monoxide is typically measured by using an infrared gas analyzer. With this instrument the absorption of infrared radiation by carbon monoxide in the sample air stream is compared with absorption in a reference gas of known carbon monoxide concentration. This method allows continuous non-destructive measurement of carbon monoxide in the sampled air Sulphur dioxide is generally measured by ultraviolet emission spectrometers. This approach is based on the principle that sulphur dioxide emits a measurable flux of radiation when irradiated with intense UV from a light source in the spectrometer. Nitrogen oxides are measured by chemiluminescence. Tow sequential chemical reactions involving ozone are used. First, NO is measured, then NO2. Infrared radiation is emitted during oxidation of NO to NO2 by ozone introduced into the instrument. The amount of radiation produced is proportional to the NO concentration in the air stream. To measure NO2, a catalyst is used to reduce all NO2 in the air stream to NO, whose subsequence reaction with ozone permits the indirect determination of NO2 Ozone concentration are generally measured by using a UV absorption spectrophotometer, although chemiluminescent-type instruments are also used. Various no-methane hydrocarbons are measured using such instruments as a gas chromatograph. Hydrocarbons are generally more difficult to measure than most other pollutants, and often require greater operator involvement in the measurement process (Pepper, I.L C.P Gerba M. L Brusseau. 1996) Monitoring of air quality has been undertaken by scientists for several years. The air taken into the sampler is drawn first through a white filter paper, on which any smoke present leaves a deposit as a stain a; greater or lesser blackness. It then passes through a reagent solution which traps any sulphur dioxide present and converts it to sulphuric acid. After a weeks sampling the seven sets of smoke stain and reagent bottle are brought to the laboratory for analysis. The smoke is determined by measuring instrumentally the loss of reflectance of the once-white filter papers, the reflectance values being convened into equivalent smoke concentrations from a standard calibration graph. The sulphur dioxide is measured by careful titration of the very weak acid solutions, followed by calculation of the results. They also monitor air quality throughout the district, using diffusion tubes and the air quality monitoring station. Contaminated land is a key project for the service, with the production of a contaminated land strategy. Monitoring gaseous emissions from soil and land fill Soils play an important role in controlling back ground concentrations of most air pollutants. Soil can either emit or take up from the atmosphere many trace gases, including NOx, N2O, CO2, and CH4. In general there are three different approaches to measure gas fluxes between soil, and the atmosphere and these are: Chamber approaches, micrometeorological approaches, and soil profile approaches. Monitoring of tropospheric pollutants    When monitoring tropospheric pollutants, an important step is to know which pollutants are present in the troposphere and how their concentrations vary. Chemists monitor the concentrations of tropospheric pollutants, to study patterns and learn about the rate at which certain reactions will take place in certain conditions    Studying individual reactions in the laboratory   To make predictions about pollution, chemists need to know what reactions take place and how quickly they occur. Many of these reactions involve broken down fragments of molecules called radicals. Reactions with radicals happen very quickly but other reactions happen very slowly. Chemists measure the length of time of these reactions to predict the rate at which a reaction will proceed for any set of conditions.    Modelling Studies      The information on rates of reactions is used in computer simulation studies to reproduce and predict the behaviour of pollutants during a smog episode. The more accurate the information used, the more closely the model simulates the observed behaviour.    Smog Chamber Solutions   These are laboratory experiments on a large scale. Primary pollutants are mixed in a huge clear plastic bag called a smog chamber and exposed to sunlight under carefully controlled conditions. Probes monitor the concentrations of various species as the photochemical smog builds up. The chamber has to be big to minimise any surface effects where the reactions take place on the walls of the container instead of the gas phase. Chemists monitor pollutants to find out exactly what pollutants are involved in smog formation, and how they vary in concentration. These changes in concentration can show changes in the atmosphere, for example the presence of sunlight.    Chemists study reactions to see which pollutants react with which. Most importantly, to see which radicals are formed where, because they are very reactive, and cause a lot of atmospheric reactions. The speed of these reactions needs to be measured to understand how fast substances are being made and destroyed.    Chemists can makes models of situations, to predict what will happen in the future. One such model is smog chamber simulations. These are huge plastic bags which are exposed to sunlight under controlled conditions. Analytical probes monitor the concentrations of different gases as the photochemical smog forms. Control One of the Methods for controlling air pollution include removing the hazardous material before it is used, removing the pollutant after it is formed, or altering the process so that the pollutant is not formed or occurs only at very low levels. Industrially emitted particulates may be trapped in cyclones, electrostatic precipitators, and filters. Pollutant gases can be collected in liquids or on solids, or incinerated into harmless substances.   The best way to control pollution is to control level of carbon emissions released into the atmosphere Using coal with low sulphur content    Power plants can use coal with low sulphur content.   As a result, less sulphur dioxide will be produced and the amount of sulphur dioxide in the flue gas will be significantly reduced.    Install scrubbers in power plants   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Power plants can install scrubbers to reduce the amount of sulphur dioxide in the flue gas.   The principle of how scrubbers can remove sulphur dioxide are given below:       Dry Scrubber   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   Calcium oxide reacts with sulphur dioxide in the flue gas, forming insoluble calcium sulphite which is then filtered out in the flue gas.   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   CaO(s) + SO2(g)   CaSO3(s)       Wet Scrubber   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   Calcium oxide is first allowed to react with water, forming calcium hydroxide.   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   CaO(s) + H2O(1)   Ca(OH)2(aq)   Calcium hydroxide then reacts with sulphur dioxide in the flue gas, forming water and calcium sulphite.   Calcium sulphite is then filtered out.      Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   Ca(OH)2(aq) + SO2(g)   CaSO3(s) + H2O(1) (  Barret.R and F. Feates. 1994) Install electrostatic precipitator in power plants: Power plants can install electrostatic precipitator to reduce the amount of particulates in the flue gas.   Flue gas passes through the electrostatic precipitator.   The particulates in the flue gas are attracted by the electric field and then removed from the electrode.    Control the temperature in the combustion chamber: The amount of nitrogen oxides released can be reduced by reducing flame temperature and availability of oxygen in the combustion zone.   But the flame temperature cannot be too low, which would cause incomplete combustion and produce carbon monoxide.    The limestone process The other main way of reducing SOx emissions is to react them with calcium carbonate to produce gypsum for the building trade. This is a hassle as it has to compete with other brands, and be marketed. NOx emissions Coal fired power stations used to get the flames as hot as possible to increase the yield, but as the rate of reaction increases as temperature increases, the amount of thermal NOx (produced from the nitrogen and oxygen combining), increases to get the flames hottest the coal was powdered and mixed with an excess of air. Low NOx burners There is this type of burner, where the injection of air is controlled, so the flames are not as hot. This significantly lowers the production of NOx. Gas reburns The injection of ethane and methane (natural gas) reacts with NOx to produce nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapour. CH4 (g) + 4NO2 (g) à   2N2 (g) + CO2 (g) + 2H2O(g) Some of the alkanes will not react, and carbon monoxide is produced as a result of incomplete combustion. CH4 à   CO + H2O The alkanes and CO are then reacted with air to combust them completely. This oxidation is exothermic and so produces heat that contributes to the generation of electricity. (Barret.R and F. Feates. 1994) Conclusion Fossil fuels, like coal, oil, and natural gas, provide the energy that powers our lifestyles and our economy. One of the main uses of fossil fuels is: to generate electricity, fuel cars, and to heat or cool buildings Fossil fuel is one of humanitys most important sources of energy. Fossil fuel plays a major role in our economy and many of our current technology have been developed with fossil fuel in mind. However burning fossil fuel is damaging the Earths environment with the release of pollution to the atmosphere. In addition ecosystems are becoming damaged by the extraction of fossil fuel. Fossil fuels impact the environment greatly; carbon dioxide emissions contribute to harmful global warming and climate change. Inefficient burning of fossil fuels results in the production of carbon monoxide, which is a very harmful and poisonous gas.   Inhalation of this gas is likely to cause death as it interferes with the transport of oxygen in the blood stream Combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas produces gases such as nitrogen oxides, which cause acid rain.

Essay --

What is progeria? The word Progeria is a Greek word â€Å"progeros† meaning 'prematurely old' Progeria is a rare genetic disease that causes children to age faster than normal. Children with this disease do not show any symptoms at birth until after their first 10 months, after which their face and body will start to show accelerated retardation and resembles to that of an adult. Their head usually grows to that of an adult and their hair will start to disappear as they grow. Life average expectancy for children affected by this illness is usually between 13 to 20 years. Research shows the major causes of death of children affected by this disease is heart failure and stroke. Causes Symptoms Complications Preparing for your appointment Tests and diagnosis Treatments and drugs Lifestyle and home remedies Lifestyle and home remedies coping and support Causes Majority of children with this disease have a change in the gene that is responsible for encoding the LMNA in their bodies. LMNA is a gene that is responsible for producing a protein that helps maintain the structural integrity of the nucleus in human cells. When LMN A malfunctions certain nucleus in the body becomes unbalance. As a result of this malfunctioned nucleus, it is believed that the malfunctioned or the unbalanced proteins are the cause of progeria in children. Sometimes this disease occurs without any given cause. It sometimes occurs in a family that has not such history. While this disease affects the genes that helps our body to function there is no proven research which shows that it hereditary. Symptoms Children with this disorder are born normal at birth. They start to show characteristics of this disease before their first birthday. At this time they will start to... ...t blood clots. Growth hormone medication may also help the patient increase height and weight. Research also shows that there are steps parents and doctors can take to improve the quality of life for children affected by this disease. Example: since poor appetite is associate with this disease, parents are encourage to give certain nutritional supplements, like Pediasure and Boost to help patient get the nutrition and calories they need. Lifestyle and home remedies There are some steps parents can take at home that may help child affected by this disease. Parent should make sure to keep children with progeria stay warm and always hydrated. Dehydration can cause more harm to children affected with this disease. The child needs to always drink enough, more so whenever they are ill. They should always be provided with meals they are reach in nutrients and calories.

Sex Without Love by Sharon Olds Essay -- Papers Analysis Sharon Olds

Sex Without Love by Sharon Olds 'Sex Without Love,' by Sharon Olds passionately described the author's disgust for casual sex in which she vividly animates the immorality of lustful sex through the variety of her language. The sarcasm used in this selection can easily be misunderstood and quite confusing if the words and lines are not analyzed with specific construction. Olds' clever use of imagery and frequent uses of similes, to make the reader imagine actual events, makes this poem come to life. For example, Olds describes making love as 'Beautiful as dancers.' (Line #2) in this line, she questions how one can do such a beautiful act with a person whom one is not in love with. Olds also describes sex as 'gliding over each other like ice skaters over the ice.' While these lines may sound enticing, one may have to read in between the lines to determine that she is imaging sex as a performance. (Line #3, #4) By imagining an ice skating performance one can quickly conclude that each ice skater is performing for a nu mber of judges and an audience to attain an award. Olds uses thi...

Shakespeares The Comedy Of Errors :: essays research papers

Shakespeare's The Comedy of Errors The Comedy of Errors was Shakespeare's first comedy. It is a light yet dramatic play about a family of twins, their parents, and their twin servants, who have been separated for over twenty years due to a tragic accident at sea. The story, following the usual format of Shakespeare's work occurs and is concluded all in one day. The twins run into each other the whole day through and are mistaken for each other more than once. This confusion makes the tragedy all the more hilarious. The action is ended in a dramatic and whirlwind ending. All matters are cleared up, although the sanity still remains on the brink of collapse. However, the tone of the play is overall cheerful and upbeat and the ending maintains the mood. I particularly enjoyed the confusion that identical twins caused even to their close family members. The fact that Shakespeare was able to make the dialogue fit in with the scenarios made the action even more comic. The idea of the plot, although not completely original is still unique and is still used in modern work, such as the TV sitcoms like "Sister, Sister." Something that surprised me in the play was Adriana's character. She was insecure and portrayed the typical damsel in distress. She was completely dependent on her husband and this fact alone made the play somewhat out of date. Shakespeare is said to be "not of an age, but for all times," but Adriana's character, in my opinion, would not fit in to the modern world. I feel the most important part of the play is the message it conveys and should be used as a moral today. The whole play is based on family members who are trying to reunite. The play says that even though there are troubling issues in our lives, we must remember our

Abortion: Legal or Illegal Essay

While abortions are viewed as immoral and should be deemed illegal, women should have the right to choose what happens to their own body because abortions can be chosen as a way of getting rid of an undesired pregnancy for a rape or incest victim, abortions can be spontaneous or not planned at times, abortions have been around for centuries and abortions can also be medically induced due to medical issues with the mother or unborn child. First, women should have the right to choose what happens to their own body because abortion can be a way for a rape or incest victim to get rid of an undesired pregnancy that resulted from the attack. According to Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network or RAINN (2009), in 2004 and 2005 there were a total of 64,080 women that were raped. According to medical reports, the incidence of pregnancy for one-time unprotected sexual intercourse is 5%. By applying the pregnancy rate to the total number of women who were sexually assaulted or raped that would m ean there were 3,204 pregnancies as a result of rape during that period. See more:  Perseverance essay Not all of these women are going to want to carry the pregnancy full term. Victims of rape and incest can suffer from low self-esteem, depression, guilt, feelings of being unclean or dirty and even a dislike for sex and the opposite gender. This is an alarming statistic. It can also be broke down into smaller figures. One out of every six women has been the victim of rape before in her lifetime (RAINN, 2009). If these women want to have an abortion they should have the right to be able to get it and not have to worry about what everyone else believe. Additionally, abortions can be spontaneous at times and as a result completely unplanned. Spontaneous abortion is better known by people as miscarriages. There are some who think that there are several different causes for this. These different causes range from chromosome problems, physical abnormalities and immune disorders. In cases of spontaneous abortions there is usually no warning it is going to happen, as a result the woman does not have a say in the matter. However, the outside world still looks at a these women differently when it occurs. Some look with pity and others look with disgust in their eyes for these women. Some women who seek an abortion and can not get one for some reason have at times tried doing things that would cause a spontaneous abortion. There are times when a spontaneous abortion happens and not all the tissue from the fetus is passed in which case there are then two choices for the woman. The first choice is surgery. The second option is to take medication to be able to complete the abortion. If the spontaneous abortion is left untreated it can cause harm to the woman that is carrying the unborn fetus. However, if a woman has had three or more consecutive spontaneous abortions then the medical field will label her a habitual aborter (Abortion, 2009). Third, abortions have been around in history for centuries for women. Back when the settlers first arrived in the United States abortion was legal. Once then Constitution was adopted abortions before quickening were legal and very widely advertised (NAF, 2010). The Japanese have records that date back to the 12th century of inducing an abortion on women who choose to have one. Back in the 11th century authors would put such knowledge into poetry. However, the herbs were not always without side effects. Some of the herbs used during that time frame have been found to be poisonous. In 1898, it was recommended to use a mixture of yeast and pennyroyal tea to naturally cause a spontaneous abortion and bring menses back (Abortion, 1984, 1992, 1998). By 1880, most abortions had become illegal in the United States, except for those that are necessary to save the life of the woman. But due to the knowledge and acceptance of women’s right to an early abortion was rooted deeply in the U.S. society by that time; abortionists continued to practice openly with the support of the public, and since it was illegal by that time the abortio nist would be taken to court and the juries would refused to convict them of any wrong doing. Women who do not want to be pregnant have though out history seeked abortions or have taken the matter into their own hands. This changed in the 20th century with the Supreme Court ruling in Roe v Wade. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of permitting abortion during the first six months of a woman’s pregnancy. The base for the Supreme Court ruling is that the unborn fetus is not protected under the 14th amendment like the pregnant woman is because the fetus is not a person. The most important reason that women should have the right to choose what happens to their bodies is because abortions can be medically induced due to health issues with the mother or the unborn child. There are times when it is dangerous for the woman to carry the pregnancy at all. It is during times like these that women need the right to be able to choose what is best for them. If abortions were illegal these women would be subjected to the choice of carrying the pregnancy with all the medical problems that will come along with it or seeking an illegal abortion. Illegal abortions can be very risky and can cause death from blood loss or even partial births were the woman ends up giving birth to a dead fetus later in the pregnancy. However, women should have the right to choose what is best for them and the unborn fetus. If the fetus would develop damaged in some way that it would not be able to sustain life outside of the womb then women should have the right to seek out an abortion if they want it. However, on the contrary the religious beliefs of some see abortion as immoral and would like to see it become illegal. These people view abortion as murdering a helpless little person who can not defend themselves. They believe that life starts at the moment of conception. The Roman Catholic Church stated that â€Å"the deliberate ending of a pregnancy† is never acceptable, even if it is to save the life of the woman (Abortion and Religion, 2011). Gwendolyn Brooks, famous poet, wrote in her poem â€Å"A Street in Bronzeville† back in 1945 that â€Å"Abortions will not let you forget, you remember the children you got that you did not get.†(Abortion, 2003) These are sound arguments against abortion. However, women have the right to say what happens to their own bodies. The unborn fetus is within a woman’s body. Therefore, the woman has the right to say if it should stay or go. To make women do something against their will, like being pregnant, is to take away their freedom to act in a way that is best for them. According to the Supreme Court, the unborn fetus is not a person. Therefore, since the unborn fetus is not a person it can not be considered murder. It is not murder until life begins and the fetus can survive outside the woman. Indeed, while abortions are viewed as immoral and should be illegal, women should have the right to choose what happens to their body. References Abortion. (1984, 1992, 1998). Our Bodies, Ourselves for the New Century. Retrieved from http://www.feminist.com/resources/ourbodies/abortion.html Abortion. (2003). In Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present. Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com/entry/abcprop/abortion Abortion. (2004). In Encyclopedia of Women’s Health. Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com/entry/sprwh/abortion Abortion. (2008). In The Columbia Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com/entry/columency/abortion Abortion. (2009). In Taber’s Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary. Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com/entry/tcmd/abortion Abortion and Religion. (2011, June). Retrieved from http://www.efc.org.uk/PDFs/Abortion%20and%20 religion%20leaflet%202011.pdf BBC. (2012, May 22). Abortion: Historical attitudes to abortion Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/abortion/legal/history_1.shtml NAF. (2010). National Abortion Federation. Retrieved from http://www.prochoice.org/about_abortion/history_abortion.html RAINN. (2009). Retrieved from http://www.rainn.org/get-information/statistics/sexual-assault-victims Trupin, S. R. (2007, June 20) Abo rtion – Types Preparation and Procedure Information. Retrieved from http://www.emedicinehealth.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=59088&pf=3&page=1

Indenting

Indenting Principles of indenting ? Budget. ? typecast of Establishment. ? Method of grooming. ? availability in Season. ? Place of approachability. ? Left overs in Hand. 1 Budgeting Budget of an orgnisation. A fixed indenting that office totality of money which is spent for a crabby udder. e. g. A equalityticular dish back tooth be prep atomic number 18d by using expensive items as assumption in the original recipe, only if if it does non fit the budget some habit have to be done persona of substitutes n inferior flavour ingredients laughingstock be use. Portion size can be reduced keeping the terms of the dish constant which overstep direct affect indenting. Type of Establishment The amount of food required for different places is different. e. g. industrial mobile canteens dress 150 gms of rice per impute whereas rice served in a clobber or banquet party of a 5 star hotel is 40-50 gms per peck. 3 Method of Preparation It also affect indenting that means more ways can be utilize to prep atomic number 18 n get a desire result. For a dish n amount of ingredients vary directly ascribable to the different regularitys of eagerness. e. g. rice can be prep ard by draining method or absorption method the deliver in draining method is much(prenominal) more than absorption method.So it affects indenting. 4 Availability in Season Food ingredients available in the period should be used for preparing a dish which affect indenting directly. e. g. In preparation of Aloo Mutter during season fresh peas should be indented n in off season dried or frozen. 5 Place of Availability For purchasing of food ingredients in hotel and organizations, tenders are invited and suppliers with the lower quotation and good whole tone get the show. The quantity is considered go indenting the cost which should be reasonably low than new(prenominal) quotation. 6 Leftovers in Hands They are used to make up new dishes and serve to the customers as todays special. This helps the organisations to admit wastage of food and the additional item will also reduce indenting of goods. Portion for quite a little Production Quantity and per centum for sight production are as follows A Rice Absorption Method 100 gms per portion. wearing Method 75-80 gms per portion. Industrial Canteen one hundred twenty-five-150 gms per portion. calamity 40-50 gms per portion. Proportion of rice and Vegs is 21 and rice and mutton is 43. B Indian Breads C Mutton Mutton with oss 125 gms per portion. Without bones 80 gms per portion. If served in a thali 40-50 gms per portion. Minced meat 60 gms per portion. Chicken with bone 125 gms per portion. Chicken with bone 75 gms per portion. Avearge or Std wt of Chicken is 1. 36 kg. 1 Kg of boneless chicken in gives 450-500 gms. Tandoori chicken is served 2 portion from per chicken. stick chicken is served 4 portion from a chicken. Chicken used for gravies 8 portion from per chicke n. Chicken used in soups 30 gms per portion. D Fish 1 std fish gives 5 portion and 2 or 4 fillets which is 80 gms per portion. Prawns without blast 120 gms per portion.After shelling 100 gms per portion. E Veg ? Besan used 250 gms for 1 kg of potatoes ? Oil 7. 5ml per wada. ? 1 kg of sago- 50 wada. F Dal 1. 30 gms per portion but when served in a heel counter 10-12 gms per portion. Chana, Rajma, Chawli 40 gms per portion becomes double after turn and 120 gms of gravy after preparation. 2. 1 kg of udid decaliter gives 55 nos of medu wadas. 3. 1 kg of chana dal gives 45 nos of dal wadas. 4. For idlis rice and dal proportion is 21. 1 kg will give 40 dosa. 5. 1 coconut gives cc ms of coconut which serve 30 concourse. 6. Pickles 0. 5 per portion. 7. Papad 1 per portion. 5-30 nos per packet. G Desserts Sheera 40 gms of rawa 30 gms sugar, 10 gms of fat, 80-100 ml of water or take out for 1 porion. Semiyan Kheer, Semiya 15 gms, milk 100 ml, sugar 30-40 gms, fat 10-15 gms per portion. If juiceless semiyas is made 45-50 gms is taken for one portion and milk is reduce accordingly. Gulab Jamun, 1kg of mawa-80 gulab jamun. cc gms of polish flour for binding 2 kg of sugar for syrup. Jalebi, 1 kg of maida, 200 gms of bean, 200 ml of oil, 200 gms curd and 2 kg of sugar for syrup. Boondis, 1kg of besan- 5kg of sweet boondies, suagr 2. 5 kg. 1 kg of besan gives 2. 5-3 kg of Khara Boondi. Custard for 2 portion, 1 egg, 30 gms sugar, 150 ml milk, 7-8 gms gelatine. Rasgullas, 1 ltr of milk gives 300-400 gms cottage cheese which gives 40 rasugullas, suagr 2 kg for syrup. serviceable difficulties involved in indenting Indenting is similar to requisition which is an inter-department chronicle sent for a particular requirement which may be ironic goods, food stuffs, cleaning seculars or stationery. moreover in terms of food it is evermore referred to an indent which means a document stating requirement of goods in terms of description, quality specificatio n, units and quantity required etc. t is sent to the stores. Stores collect indent from dissimilar department and collectively place order to the supplier to send such material on a specified day of the month and time. Factors affecting indenting in the terms adept explained above it is not easy when indenting for littler quantity for 1 recipe because 1 batch of goods would be excess for that recipe. Indenting for a 1000 meal or buffet or banquet or burnt umber shop or industrial canteen is much easier than indenting. For single portion the factors considered while in denting for large quantity are- No of persons Larger the number of people lesser the quantity. 2 No of items on the batting order More the no of items quality are less. 3 Choice provided on the menu. 4 No of non-veg items on the menu. 5 Vegetarian alternatives. 6 No of vegetarians. 7 Beef, Mutton, Chicken etc eaten. 8 Inclusion of Indian bread. 9 Types of Clientele. 10 Choice of desserts provided. 11 Consistenc y of the dish. E. g. thick or thin gravies. 12 Selling price of the menu. 13 par stock of raw material. 14 Mise-en-place to be done. 15 Type of service. E. g. Banquet, buffets or table servicepicpic